A Brief History of Art Movements and Politics in Russia: 1913-1932.
The Birth of Realism in Russia
In the mid-19th century, a new style of painting emerged in Russia.This new style deviated from the traditional style of pictorial painting1 in that it was largely based on social criticism and ideological realism. This shift in styles was largely influenced by Vasily Perov (1833-1882) and Nikolai Chernyshevsky (1828-1889).2 Perov was a painter who had dedicated his career to the study of the lower class (something which was uncommon for artists at the time).3 Whereas Chernyshevsky was a revolutionary, a writer, and a philosopher; he argued that art should be used as a social weapon. In 1863, thirteen students from the prestigious St. Petersburg Academy had, as a group, refused to comply with the classical and traditional norms of style.4 Influenced by Perov and Chernyshevsky, the students quit the Academy and founded their own co-operative to sell their work; by 1871 they had nationally established themselves as the Society for Traveling Art Exhibits (they were later known as the Wanderers) and were exhibiting their work across Russia.5 The Wanderers issued the first wide spread realist movement in Russia. Their art was classified as 'realist' since the subject matter of their paintings focused mainly on the lives of ordinary people (rather than the bourgeoise) and national historical narratives.6 Furthermore, their art entailed direct and indirect elements of social criticism.7 Prior to this shift away from traditionalism, Russian art and culture had been heavily influenced by the West; however, by the end of the 19th century, Russian art and culture had separated from Western influence and had come to embody prominent nationalistic under tones.
1. Ilya Repin, Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan on 16 November 1581, 1885, Oil on canvas, 199.5x 254 cm, the State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow Russia). Ilya Repin (1844-1930) was one of the most famous of the Wanderers, he painted various portraits and historical scenes. His painting of Ivan the Terrible and his son imply a criticism of tyranny.1
3. Vasily Surikov, Yermak's Conquest of Siberia, 1895, Oil on canvas, 285x 599cm, The State Russian Museum (St. Petersburg, Russia). Surikov's painting represents a glorious moment in Russia's history; rather than criticize Russia's past and political situation, it was meant to foster a sense of nationalism and pride.
The Avant-garde
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian artists enjoyed relative amounts of freedom in their expression and style; various art styles began to flourish in Russia. The first twenty years of the century had exposed Europe to various and extreme social changes, scientific advances, technological developments, and mass warfare. Artists adapted themselves and their artwork to these changes, they challenged conventional standards and forms of art, formed manifestos, groups, and staged exhibitions. Between 1910 and 1918 futurism, fauvism, expressionism, cubism, dadaism, and abstract art emerged to challenge traditional and conventional forms of art.
In 1913, Vladimir Tatlin (1885-1953) and Kazimir Malevitch (1879-1935) took the first steps to creating a uniquely Russian style of avant-garde art.1 The two artists mixed elements of traditional European art, with elements of expressionism and Parisienne cubism.2 Other artists, like Chagall and Kandinsky, who had rushed back to Russia to 'wait out the war', experimented with these new styles of art. Almost instantly avant-garde art came to dominate the art scenes in Moscow and St. Petersburg.3 However, after three years on the art scene, critics slowly began to scrutinize the new movement, especially suprematism (a minimalistic style inaugurated by Malevitch). B. Lopatine heavily criticized the movement in an article his article “ Futurisme-Suprémastisme”, which was published in December 1915 in the Day (a newspaper from Petrograd). Writing about a recent exhibit which he had seen, Lopatine stated that
“the ideology of this exhibition is clearly explained in its manifesto which is written by Pouni and Bogouslovsaia and offered freely to art amateurs upon entering the exhibit. The manifesto states 'A canvas contains new conceptions of real abstract elements, stripped of their significance. The object (the people), freed of any meaning and sense, is reduced to the elements which are really fundamental in art.' Having therefore freed themselves from any constraints, the artists won't hesitate to paint in large strokes and disarray anything which they can think of: lamps; the silhouette of an umbrella; the dial of a clock; a row of red, green, and grey disks; half of a coat, crossroads going any which way; fragments of an inscription.”4[translation my own].
Although futurism and the new styles of the avant-garde were heavily criticized in newspapers and journals, they continued to dominate the Russian art scene. Avant-garde art had become so popular in the Russian art world, that Russia would remain the post-war centre of Modernism up until the 1930s.5
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian artists enjoyed relative amounts of freedom in their expression and style; various art styles began to flourish in Russia. The first twenty years of the century had exposed Europe to various and extreme social changes, scientific advances, technological developments, and mass warfare. Artists adapted themselves and their artwork to these changes, they challenged conventional standards and forms of art, formed manifestos, groups, and staged exhibitions. Between 1910 and 1918 futurism, fauvism, expressionism, cubism, dadaism, and abstract art emerged to challenge traditional and conventional forms of art.
In 1913, Vladimir Tatlin (1885-1953) and Kazimir Malevitch (1879-1935) took the first steps to creating a uniquely Russian style of avant-garde art.1 The two artists mixed elements of traditional European art, with elements of expressionism and Parisienne cubism.2 Other artists, like Chagall and Kandinsky, who had rushed back to Russia to 'wait out the war', experimented with these new styles of art. Almost instantly avant-garde art came to dominate the art scenes in Moscow and St. Petersburg.3 However, after three years on the art scene, critics slowly began to scrutinize the new movement, especially suprematism (a minimalistic style inaugurated by Malevitch). B. Lopatine heavily criticized the movement in an article his article “ Futurisme-Suprémastisme”, which was published in December 1915 in the Day (a newspaper from Petrograd). Writing about a recent exhibit which he had seen, Lopatine stated that
“the ideology of this exhibition is clearly explained in its manifesto which is written by Pouni and Bogouslovsaia and offered freely to art amateurs upon entering the exhibit. The manifesto states 'A canvas contains new conceptions of real abstract elements, stripped of their significance. The object (the people), freed of any meaning and sense, is reduced to the elements which are really fundamental in art.' Having therefore freed themselves from any constraints, the artists won't hesitate to paint in large strokes and disarray anything which they can think of: lamps; the silhouette of an umbrella; the dial of a clock; a row of red, green, and grey disks; half of a coat, crossroads going any which way; fragments of an inscription.”4[translation my own].
Although futurism and the new styles of the avant-garde were heavily criticized in newspapers and journals, they continued to dominate the Russian art scene. Avant-garde art had become so popular in the Russian art world, that Russia would remain the post-war centre of Modernism up until the 1930s.5
Vladimir Tatlin's Tower, also known as the Monument to the Third International. It was designed between 1919-1920. Meant to commemorate the Russian Revolution and symbolize modernity, the tower was suppose to be built out of glass, steel, and iron. The model never got past the planning stages, Tatlin was not an architect and never attempted to address the engineering of the project, however his tower has been commemorated for its aesthetic appeal.
Art, The Revolution and the Immediate Post Revolutionary Years
The Revolution: A Brief History
By 1917, Russia seemed on the verge of collapse: its army was depleted from fighting in World War One and its capital city was plagued by strikes and bread riots.1 Russians had enough of their corrupt government, a radical faction of Russians had began to call for the overthrow of the Tzar. Tzar Nicholas II abdicated his throne on March 15 1917 (February according to the Julian calendar which Russia used at the time) in favour of his brother.2 His brother refused, thus putting an end to Russia's tzarist autocracy.3 Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) later became the head of the provisional government.4 The provisional government refused to abandon the war effort even though many of its soldiers had began to mutiny and/or had deserted the army.5 Growing resentment towards the provisional government had emerged amongst soldiers and civilians (who were disgruntled by the government's persistence about remaining in the war as well as its inability to follow through on land reforms).6 During this time, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924), who had returned from exile to Petrograd in April 1917, had began rallying the Bolshevik Party.7Lenin argued for Russia's withdrawal from the war, a large scale revolution in both Russia and in Europe,and for the seizure of large estates by the peasantry.8 After a failed revolution in July, the Bolsheviks seized power on October 24th 1917 after a successful insurrection led by Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) against the provisional government.9
Although victorious in their insurrection, the Bolsheviks found themselves fighting anti-Bolshevik forces (also known as the White shirts) in a two year long civil war (1918-1920) .10 During the civil war, Russia had dramatically expanded its boarders to include surrounding countries such as Belarus, Ukraine and Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, which after 1936, all became separate republics).11 Thus, in 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR, also known as the Soviet Union) was created, with Moscow serving as its capital.12
Artists and the Revolution
Following the establishment of the Soviet Republic, Russia's art scene began to thrive. An “unprecedented ebullience and explosive intensity” characterized art during this period of rapid social change and daily hardship.1 Following the Revolution, artists' former middle and upper class patrons were unable to sponsor their work; therefore artists began to work for the newly formed government. During the early years of the new regime, the government did not try to regulate art however, they did insist that it be persist with party policy.2 Thus in years after the Revolution, extremism was the norm of every artistic program.3
Many artists had been in tune with the Revolution and, immediately after the Revolution, they worked in tandem with the Commissar of Education, Anatoly Lunacharsky to set up museums throughout the countryside.4 The leaders of the Communist party had believed that all forms of art should be used to educate the masses.5 Similarly, artists believed in “bringing art to the people.”6 Thus artists like Vasily Kandinsky and Marc Chagall set up museums in their home towns as well as in frontier cities.7 The art that artists displayed was modern and abstract; it consisted of sophisticated sculptures and geometric paintings.8 The spreading of this 'modernist' art from the cities to the country brought to light social gaps between an urban educated elite and an untrained rural peasantry. Peasants were confused by the abstract principles of avant-garde art, they were unable to understand it's aesthetic value. This disjuncture would later be a contributing factor which would lead to government interference in art production in the the latter half of the 1920s.
Constructivism
The government also employed paints and poets to design posters and invent slogans for social propaganda. The propaganda being produced was meant to educate the masses, for example, posters were deigned to teach people the importance of hygiene and improved ways to raise children.9 During this period, constructivist art also emerged, it was meant to be to be used to help build the new society and exemplify the spirit of production.10 Constructivism was meant to be experienced; thus all art of this genre was to be made in such a way that it would be directly relevant to life. Constructivism fell in line with Russia's new push to industrialism and the glorification of the worker in Soviet society.11 On canvas, constructivism considered of 3D collages made of working materials (such as coal, wood, glass, paper, and metal). The influence of constructivism expanded into the realms of theatre, poetry (in that it influenced the futurists like Valimir Mayakovsky) and architecture. Furthermore, because of its progressive outlook and concern with the working class, constructivism became more popular in government sponsored organizations than the pure art of artists like Chagall and Kandinsky.12
Futurism and Proletcult
Out of the constructivism movement, futurism was born under such Poets as Vladimir Mayakovsy (1893-1930) and Boris Pasternak (1890-1960).13This group sought a break with the classical past and proposed new forms for poetic word combinations. Although the futurists wanted a break with the past, they never denied the existence of the past. In contrast, the Proletarian Cultural Educational Organization (Proletcult), which was headed by Alexander Bogdanov, wanted nothing to do with the past; thus they sought to produce art that owed nothing to Russian history.14 Although Proletcult failed as a mass art movement, it had an influential impact on the art world in that it shifted artists of proletarian origins into the spotlight. Artists who were not of proletarian origins were eventually looked down upon and regarded as “suspect.”15
Death at a Funeral: The death of Lenin and the Beginning of the end for Artistic Freedoms
Lenin's death marked the beginning of a harsher period of political repression and conflict. Although Lenin's death and the subsequent establishment of his cult of personality (for more information on this see Towards The Cult of Personality) gave thousands of painters, writers, sculptors and musicians employment, his death also marked an increase in censorship of artistic freedoms.1 With the rise of Stalin came a cultural revolution; artists were now directed by the state towards realism and revolutionary themes. Historian Tobia Frankel argues that “the end of diversity in the arts paralleled an end of diversity in the party and government” as political leaders such as Bukharin, Zinovien, Kamenew, and Trotsky, who had themselves supported a more lenient approach to the arts and artists, were soon purged by Stalin's government.2 Until Stalin became the official leader of the Soviet Union in 1927, there was no serious official attack on the avant-garde, even though the Soviet Party disapproved of it, because its appeal to the masses was negligible.3 However, by 1928 Stalin had become a dominant influence within Soviet culture and art.4 Stalin established himself as an arbiter of aesthetics and decree a new philosophy for art; socialist realism.5 All art had to be realest in nature and serve a purpose.6 By the 1930s, the authoritarianism of the political judgements being made was being paralleled in cultural life.7 By 1934 socialist realism had become a mandatory state policy and artists who didn't comply were purged or banned from exhibiting.8
The Revolution: A Brief History
By 1917, Russia seemed on the verge of collapse: its army was depleted from fighting in World War One and its capital city was plagued by strikes and bread riots.1 Russians had enough of their corrupt government, a radical faction of Russians had began to call for the overthrow of the Tzar. Tzar Nicholas II abdicated his throne on March 15 1917 (February according to the Julian calendar which Russia used at the time) in favour of his brother.2 His brother refused, thus putting an end to Russia's tzarist autocracy.3 Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) later became the head of the provisional government.4 The provisional government refused to abandon the war effort even though many of its soldiers had began to mutiny and/or had deserted the army.5 Growing resentment towards the provisional government had emerged amongst soldiers and civilians (who were disgruntled by the government's persistence about remaining in the war as well as its inability to follow through on land reforms).6 During this time, Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924), who had returned from exile to Petrograd in April 1917, had began rallying the Bolshevik Party.7Lenin argued for Russia's withdrawal from the war, a large scale revolution in both Russia and in Europe,and for the seizure of large estates by the peasantry.8 After a failed revolution in July, the Bolsheviks seized power on October 24th 1917 after a successful insurrection led by Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) against the provisional government.9
Although victorious in their insurrection, the Bolsheviks found themselves fighting anti-Bolshevik forces (also known as the White shirts) in a two year long civil war (1918-1920) .10 During the civil war, Russia had dramatically expanded its boarders to include surrounding countries such as Belarus, Ukraine and Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, which after 1936, all became separate republics).11 Thus, in 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR, also known as the Soviet Union) was created, with Moscow serving as its capital.12
Artists and the Revolution
Following the establishment of the Soviet Republic, Russia's art scene began to thrive. An “unprecedented ebullience and explosive intensity” characterized art during this period of rapid social change and daily hardship.1 Following the Revolution, artists' former middle and upper class patrons were unable to sponsor their work; therefore artists began to work for the newly formed government. During the early years of the new regime, the government did not try to regulate art however, they did insist that it be persist with party policy.2 Thus in years after the Revolution, extremism was the norm of every artistic program.3
Many artists had been in tune with the Revolution and, immediately after the Revolution, they worked in tandem with the Commissar of Education, Anatoly Lunacharsky to set up museums throughout the countryside.4 The leaders of the Communist party had believed that all forms of art should be used to educate the masses.5 Similarly, artists believed in “bringing art to the people.”6 Thus artists like Vasily Kandinsky and Marc Chagall set up museums in their home towns as well as in frontier cities.7 The art that artists displayed was modern and abstract; it consisted of sophisticated sculptures and geometric paintings.8 The spreading of this 'modernist' art from the cities to the country brought to light social gaps between an urban educated elite and an untrained rural peasantry. Peasants were confused by the abstract principles of avant-garde art, they were unable to understand it's aesthetic value. This disjuncture would later be a contributing factor which would lead to government interference in art production in the the latter half of the 1920s.
Constructivism
The government also employed paints and poets to design posters and invent slogans for social propaganda. The propaganda being produced was meant to educate the masses, for example, posters were deigned to teach people the importance of hygiene and improved ways to raise children.9 During this period, constructivist art also emerged, it was meant to be to be used to help build the new society and exemplify the spirit of production.10 Constructivism was meant to be experienced; thus all art of this genre was to be made in such a way that it would be directly relevant to life. Constructivism fell in line with Russia's new push to industrialism and the glorification of the worker in Soviet society.11 On canvas, constructivism considered of 3D collages made of working materials (such as coal, wood, glass, paper, and metal). The influence of constructivism expanded into the realms of theatre, poetry (in that it influenced the futurists like Valimir Mayakovsky) and architecture. Furthermore, because of its progressive outlook and concern with the working class, constructivism became more popular in government sponsored organizations than the pure art of artists like Chagall and Kandinsky.12
Futurism and Proletcult
Out of the constructivism movement, futurism was born under such Poets as Vladimir Mayakovsy (1893-1930) and Boris Pasternak (1890-1960).13This group sought a break with the classical past and proposed new forms for poetic word combinations. Although the futurists wanted a break with the past, they never denied the existence of the past. In contrast, the Proletarian Cultural Educational Organization (Proletcult), which was headed by Alexander Bogdanov, wanted nothing to do with the past; thus they sought to produce art that owed nothing to Russian history.14 Although Proletcult failed as a mass art movement, it had an influential impact on the art world in that it shifted artists of proletarian origins into the spotlight. Artists who were not of proletarian origins were eventually looked down upon and regarded as “suspect.”15
Death at a Funeral: The death of Lenin and the Beginning of the end for Artistic Freedoms
Lenin's death marked the beginning of a harsher period of political repression and conflict. Although Lenin's death and the subsequent establishment of his cult of personality (for more information on this see Towards The Cult of Personality) gave thousands of painters, writers, sculptors and musicians employment, his death also marked an increase in censorship of artistic freedoms.1 With the rise of Stalin came a cultural revolution; artists were now directed by the state towards realism and revolutionary themes. Historian Tobia Frankel argues that “the end of diversity in the arts paralleled an end of diversity in the party and government” as political leaders such as Bukharin, Zinovien, Kamenew, and Trotsky, who had themselves supported a more lenient approach to the arts and artists, were soon purged by Stalin's government.2 Until Stalin became the official leader of the Soviet Union in 1927, there was no serious official attack on the avant-garde, even though the Soviet Party disapproved of it, because its appeal to the masses was negligible.3 However, by 1928 Stalin had become a dominant influence within Soviet culture and art.4 Stalin established himself as an arbiter of aesthetics and decree a new philosophy for art; socialist realism.5 All art had to be realest in nature and serve a purpose.6 By the 1930s, the authoritarianism of the political judgements being made was being paralleled in cultural life.7 By 1934 socialist realism had become a mandatory state policy and artists who didn't comply were purged or banned from exhibiting.8
TimeLine
Please Note, all years and months in this timeline have been verified, however whenever a date states March 18th it's not the right date (since some exact dates are unknown), yet the month and year are correct.
Footnotes:
The Birth of Realism in Russia
1. Pictorial Painting often focused on mythological themes or elements of bourgeoise society. Furthermore, in pictorial paintings, artists often attempted to convey a narrative to viewers.
2. Tobia Frankel, The Russian Artist:The Creative Person in Russian Culture, ed. Jules Koslow (New York:The MacMillan Company, 1972) 73-75.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid, 74.
5.Ibid.
6.Ibid, 74-75.
7.Ibid.
The Avant Garde:
1. Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, L’Avant-Garde Russe et Soviétique: oeuvres de la collection George Costakis, (Montreal: Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, 1989):16.
2. Ibid.
3.Ibid.
4.Ibid, 16-17.
5.Eric Hobsbawn,“Changing the Avant-garde,” Royal Academy of Art Magazine 97 (Winter2007):2.
The Revolution: A Brief History
1. John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe, 3rd ed., vol.2 From the French Revolution to the Present (New York: W.W. Norton& Company, Inc., 1996),916.
2.Ibid.
3. “Russian Revolution”, History.com Staff, published in 2009 by A&E, http://www.history.com/topics/russian-revolution.
4. Merriman, A History, 916.
5. Ibid.
6.Ibid, 916, 938-939.
7.Ibid, 939.
8.Ibid.
9.Ibid, 942.
10."Russian Revolution,".
11. Merriman,A History, 950-951.
12.Ibid, 951.
Artists and the Revolution:
1. L. Vostretsova, N. Kozyreva, S. Liubimtsev, and O. Shikhireva, Soviet Art 1920s-1930s, ed. Vladimir Leniashin (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1988), 7.
2. Frakel,The Russian Artist, 104.
3. Vostretsova et al., Soviet Art 1920s-1930s, 7.
4. Frankel,The Russian Artist, 105.
5.Ibid, 104.
6.Ibid.
7.Ibid, 106
8.Ibid, 105.
9.Ibid, 106.
10.Ibid, 107.
11. Ibid, 107-108.
12.Ibid, 108.13.Ibid.
14.Ibid,111.
15.Ibid.
Death At a Funeral:
1. Frankel,The Russian Artist, 115.
2.Ibid, 120.
3.Ibid, 121.
4.Ibid.
5.Ibid.
6.Ibid, 123.
7.Ibid, 121.
8.Ibid, 121-123.
The Birth of Realism in Russia
1. Pictorial Painting often focused on mythological themes or elements of bourgeoise society. Furthermore, in pictorial paintings, artists often attempted to convey a narrative to viewers.
2. Tobia Frankel, The Russian Artist:The Creative Person in Russian Culture, ed. Jules Koslow (New York:The MacMillan Company, 1972) 73-75.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid, 74.
5.Ibid.
6.Ibid, 74-75.
7.Ibid.
The Avant Garde:
1. Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, L’Avant-Garde Russe et Soviétique: oeuvres de la collection George Costakis, (Montreal: Musée des Beaux-Arts de Montréal, 1989):16.
2. Ibid.
3.Ibid.
4.Ibid, 16-17.
5.Eric Hobsbawn,“Changing the Avant-garde,” Royal Academy of Art Magazine 97 (Winter2007):2.
The Revolution: A Brief History
1. John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe, 3rd ed., vol.2 From the French Revolution to the Present (New York: W.W. Norton& Company, Inc., 1996),916.
2.Ibid.
3. “Russian Revolution”, History.com Staff, published in 2009 by A&E, http://www.history.com/topics/russian-revolution.
4. Merriman, A History, 916.
5. Ibid.
6.Ibid, 916, 938-939.
7.Ibid, 939.
8.Ibid.
9.Ibid, 942.
10."Russian Revolution,".
11. Merriman,A History, 950-951.
12.Ibid, 951.
Artists and the Revolution:
1. L. Vostretsova, N. Kozyreva, S. Liubimtsev, and O. Shikhireva, Soviet Art 1920s-1930s, ed. Vladimir Leniashin (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1988), 7.
2. Frakel,The Russian Artist, 104.
3. Vostretsova et al., Soviet Art 1920s-1930s, 7.
4. Frankel,The Russian Artist, 105.
5.Ibid, 104.
6.Ibid.
7.Ibid, 106
8.Ibid, 105.
9.Ibid, 106.
10.Ibid, 107.
11. Ibid, 107-108.
12.Ibid, 108.13.Ibid.
14.Ibid,111.
15.Ibid.
Death At a Funeral:
1. Frankel,The Russian Artist, 115.
2.Ibid, 120.
3.Ibid, 121.
4.Ibid.
5.Ibid.
6.Ibid, 123.
7.Ibid, 121.
8.Ibid, 121-123.